What is an epic? Main genres of epic

Type of literature

If drama depicts the human personality in conflict with the people around him, and lyrics are aimed at expressing the feelings and thoughts of the author, then the genres of epic imply an objective depiction of an individual interacting with the world around him.

Much attention is paid to events, characters, circumstances, social and natural environment. It is for this reason that the epic genres in literature are more diverse than dramas or lyrics. The ability to use all the depths of language allows the author to pay special attention to description and narration. This can be facilitated by epithets, complex sentences, all kinds of metaphors, phraseological units, etc. This and much more are fine details.

Lyric-epic genre of literature

Sometimes writers add lyrical features to works of epic genres. In the case of a story, the main part is supplemented with a preface (prologue) and an afterword (epilogue). In them, the author expresses his opinion on the current circumstances or explains points that could mislead the reader. Examples of lyric-epic genres:

Ballad. Presents a narrative narrative of a fantastic, satirical, historical, mythical or legendary nature in poetic form. The ballad is also classified as folklore. It is based on the dialogue of the characters. The plot has no independent meaning, but the presentation is brightly colored by lyrical techniques. The works are characterized by the presence of repetitions (refrains) and strict rhythm. Ballads may contain features characteristic of other genres.
Poem. A large or medium-sized multi-frequency poem belongs to a specific author. The work is distinguished by a narrative or lyrical plot. The work may be romantic, heroic, satirical or critical.
Poem in prose. A lyrical work in prose form is distinguished by its small volume, increased emotionality and lack of rhythmic organization. Such a poem expresses the feelings, experiences and impressions of the hero.

In different genres of epic, authors can use any artistic means. Although most works cover global problems of society, epic works contribute to deep penetration into the inner world of man. Literary works in the epic genre play an important role in the formation of students’ speaking skills.

Major epic genres

Of the voluminous genres, epic includes the following genres: epic, novel, and works that fall under both of these definitions. This generic designation is opposed to such small genres as short story, tale, etc.

Epic can be defined using two definitions:

1. An extensive narrative that focuses on significant historical events.

2. A long and complex story involving many events and characters.

Examples of the epic genre are the works of Russian literature “Quiet Don” by M.A. Sholokhov and “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy. Both books have a plot that spans several dramatic years in the country's history. In the first case, this is the First World War and the Civil War, which destroyed the Cossacks, to which the main characters belonged. Tolstoy's epic tells about the life of the nobles against the backdrop of the confrontation with Napoleon, bloody battles and the burning of Moscow. Both writers pay attention to multiple characters and destinies, rather than making one character the protagonist of the entire work.

A novel, as a rule, is somewhat smaller in volume than an epic and does not focus on such a large number of people. In general, this term can be deciphered as “a prose, detailed narrative about the life of the main character and the development of his personality.” Due to its accessibility and versatility, this genre is undoubtedly the most popular in literature.

The rather vague concept of a novel allows us to include a variety of works, sometimes radically different from each other. There is a point of view about the emergence of this phenomenon back in Antiquity (“Satyricon” by Petronius, “Golden Eagle” by Apuleius). A more popular theory is that the novel appeared during the heyday of chivalry. It could be a reworked folk epic or smaller fables (The Romance of Renard).

The development of the genre continued in modern times. It reached its apogee in the 19th century. It was at this time that such classics as A. Dumas, V. Hugo, F. Dostoevsky worked. The latter’s works can also be characterized as a psychological novel, since Fyodor Mikhailovich reached incredible heights in describing the mental state, experiences and thoughts of his heroes. One can also add Stendhal to the “psychological” series.

Other subgenres: philosophical, historical, educational, fantasy, romance, adventure novel, utopia, etc.

In addition, there is a classification of novels by country. All these are also genres of epic. Mentality, lifestyle and language characteristics have made Russian, French and American novels completely different phenomena.

Epic genres

The major genres of epic include epic and novel, as well as saga.

The largest epic genre is considered to be epic (or epic itself). It describes the life of several generations, takes place on the territory of one or several states, and covers many centuries. In northern Europe (on the Scandinavian Peninsula), such a large-scale narrative was called a saga .

Tales about kings are written in this genre, the most famous of which can be called the saga “Heimskringla” (“Earthly Circle”) by Snorri Sturluson. In the 19th century, this genre designation was used by the Englishman J. Galsworthy, author of the famous “Forsyte Saga.”

The novel is smaller in scope in terms of space and time, but is more varied in the way it covers various issues. Classic examples of combining novel and epic from the school curriculum:

— “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy;
— “Quiet Don” by M.A. Sholokhov.

A novel can be huge, like the multi-volume “Life of Klim Samgin” by M. Gorky, or compact, like “Brisbane” by E. Vodolazkin.

The middle form of the epic - the story - became established in Russian literature as the leading genre in the era of the emergence of realism (what is it?), in the second quarter of the 19th century. Since then, this genre has acquired many varieties and modifications.

For example, one can recall “Belkin’s Tales” by A.S. Pushkin, “Petersburg Tales” by N.V. Gogol or “The Tale of Sonechka” by M.I. Tsvetaeva.

Among the small genres of epic in Russia, the most popular is the short story. It talks about one or several heroes, the events unfold in a short period of time and not far from each other, the plot (what is it?) is simple and laconic. Recently, the smallest genres of epic have been gaining popularity: etudes, short stories, essays.

Smaller elements

According to the classification of types of literature, the following genres belong to the epic: story and poem. These two phenomena reflect opposing approaches to creativity among authors.

The story occupies an intermediate position between the novel and small forms. Such a work may cover a short period of time and have one main character. It is interesting that back in the 19th century in our country stories were also called tales, since the Russian language did not yet know such a term. In other words, this was the designation for any work that was inferior in volume to a novel. In foreign literary studies, for example, in English, the concept of “story” is synonymous with the expression “short novel”. In other words, it’s a novella. The classification of this literary phenomenon is similar to that used among novels.

If the story belongs to prose, then in poetry there is a poem parallel to it, which is also considered a work of medium volume. The poetic form includes a narrative characteristic of the rest of the epic, but also has its own easily recognizable features. This is moral descriptiveness, pomp, and deep emotions of the characters.

Such an epic, examples of which can be found in a variety of cultures, arose a long time ago. Songs of a lyrical-epic nature, preserved, for example, in the form of ancient Greek hymns and numbers, can be called a certain starting point. Subsequently, such literary works became characteristic of Germanic and Scandinavian early medieval cultures. These can also include epics, i.e. Russian epic. Over time, the epic nature of the narrative became the backbone of the entire genre. The poem and its derivatives are the main genres of the epic.

In modern literature, the poem has given way to the dominant position of the novel.

Small forms

Let's consider the small genres of epic. If the author describes real events and uses factual material, such a work is considered an essay. Depending on the nature of the material, it can be artistic or journalistic.

Epic genres also include portraiture. With the help of such an experience, the author first of all explores the thoughts and personality of the hero. The surrounding world plays a secondary role, and its description is subordinated to the main task. Sometimes a portrait is also called a biographical description based on the main stages of the subject’s life.

If a portrait is an artistic experience, then a problematic essay is considered part of journalism. This is a kind of dialogue, a conversation with the reader on a certain topic. The author’s task is to identify the problem and present his own views on the situation. Newspapers and any periodicals in general are full of such notes, since their depth and size are completely suitable for journalism.

Separately, it is worth noting travel essays that arose earlier than others and were even reflected in Russian classical literature. For example, these are sketches by Pushkin, as well as “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A.N. Radishchev, which brought him immortal fame. With the help of travel notes, the author tries to record his own impressions of what he saw on the road. This is exactly what Radishchev did, not being afraid to directly declare the horrific life of the serfs and workers who met on his way.

The genres of epic in literature are also represented by short stories. This is the simplest and most accessible form for both the author and the reader. Works of Russian literature in the short story genre made A.P. world famous. Chekhov. Despite its apparent simplicity, with just a few pages he created vivid images that have become embedded in our culture (“Man in a Case,” “Thick and Thin,” etc.).

The story is synonymous with the term “short story,” which comes from the Italian language. Both are at the last level of prose in terms of volume (sequentially after the novel and story). Writers specializing in this genre are characterized by the so-called cyclization, or publication of works in periodicals on a regular basis, as well as collections.

The story is characterized by a simple structure: beginning, climax, denouement. This linear development of the plot is often diluted with the help of unexpected turns or events (the so-called piano in the bushes). A similar technique became widespread in the literature of the 19th century. The roots of the story are folk epics or fairy tales. Collections of mythical tales became the forerunners of this phenomenon. For example, “A Thousand and One Nights,” which became famous not only in the Arab world, but was also reflected in other cultures.

Already closer to the beginning of the Renaissance in Italy, the collection “The Decameron” by Giovanni Boccaccio gained popularity. It was these short stories that set the tone for the classical type of story, which became widespread after the Baroque era.

In Russia, the short story genre became popular during the period of sentimentalism at the end of the 18th century, including thanks to the work of N.M. Karamzin and V.A. Zhukovsky.

Large and medium genres

Large forms of epic are distinguished by a rich socio-historical background. Works are usually written in several volumes. Creativity reveals the private lives of several generations of people . In literature, there are two major genres of epic:

Epic. The work describes the life of a people or social group. The storyline is characterized by key historical events that radically change the fate of the main characters. The author talks about private life stories, skillfully connects episodes with scenes from the characters’ lives, carefully depicts their characters and thinking. Only true masters are capable of this, which is why there are few outstanding works in the epic genre. A well-known example of an epic in works of large form is “War and Peace” by L. N. Tolstoy.
Novel. The genre examines a specific period or the life of a specific person. The novel is distinguished by a lengthy description of many significant events, several plot lines and various groups of characters, which can be main, secondary and episodic. The works reveal issues important to society. The novels differ in structure, themes and era. Among the famous works, the works “Fathers and Sons” by I. S. Turgenev, “Crime and Punishment” by F. M. Dostoevsky, “Oblomov” by I. A. Goncharov should be highlighted.

The middle form of epic is the story. Works of this genre do not have a specific text volume and occupy an intermediate position between large and small epics. In the story, the author pays more attention to the description of the characters, their psychological state and place of action, rather than to the movement of the plot.

The works depict the natural course of life. The plot is characterized by a chronicle form: episodes often follow each other without connection with each other. Examples of stories: “The Captain's Daughter” by A. S. Pushkin, “The Steppe” by A. P. Chekhov, “Village” by I. A. Bunin.

Epic as an independent genre

In contrast to the literary genre and the triad “drama, lyricism, epic,” there is also a narrower term that speaks of epic as a narrative, the plot of which is taken from the distant past. At the same time, it includes many images, each of which creates its own picture of the world, different for each culture. The most important role in such works is played by the heroes of the folk epic.

Comparing two points of view about this phenomenon, one cannot help but turn to the words of the famous Russian culturologist and philosopher M.M. Bakhtin. Separating the epic from the distant past from the novel, he derived three theses:

1. The subject of the epic is the national, so-called absolute past, about which there is no exact evidence. The epithet "absolute" was taken from the works of Schiller and Goethe.

2. The source of the epic is only national legend, and not personal experience on the basis of which writers create their books. Thus, the folklore epic genres contain abundant references to the mythical and divine, for which there is no documentary evidence.

3. The epic world has nothing in common with modernity and is as distant as possible from it.

All these theses make it easier to answer the question of what kind of works or what genres are included in the epic.

The roots of the genre should be sought in the Middle East. The most ancient civilizations that arose between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers were distinguished by a higher cultural level compared to their neighbors. The cultivation of land, the emergence of resources, the emergence of trade - all this developed not only the language, without which literature is impossible, but also created the reasons for the outbreak of military conflicts, the plot of which forms the basis of heroic works.

In the middle of the 19th century, English archaeologists managed to discover the ancient city of Nineveh, which belonged to the Assyrian culture. Clay tablets containing several scattered tales were also found there. Later they were combined into one work - The Epic of Gilgamesh. It was inscribed in cuneiform and is today considered the oldest example of its genre. Dating allows us to attribute it to the 18th – 17th centuries BC.

At the center of the narrative of the tales is the demigod Gilgamesh and the story of his campaigns, as well as relationships with other supernatural beings of Akkadian mythology.

Another important example from Antiquity that allows us to answer the question of what genres belong to the epic is the work of Homer. His two epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, are the oldest monuments of ancient Greek culture and literature. The characters in these works are not only the gods of Olympus, but also mortal heroes, the tales of which have been preserved by folk epics from generation to generation. “The Iliad” and “Odyssey” are prototypes of future heroic poems of the Middle Ages. In many ways, plot structures and a craving for mystical stories were inherited from each other. It is in the future that the phenomenon reaches its maximum development and spread.

Medieval epic

This term refers primarily to epic, examples of which can be found in Europe among Christian or pagan civilizations.

There is also a corresponding chronological classification. The first half is the work of the early Middle Ages. Of course, these are the sagas left to us by the Scandinavian peoples. Until the 11th century, Vikings sailed the European seas, plundered, worked as mercenaries for kings and created their own states throughout the continent. This promising foundation, together with the pagan faith and the pantheon of deities, allowed the appearance of such literary monuments as “The Saga of the Welsungs”, “The Saga of Ragner Leather Pants”, etc. Each king left behind a heroic story. Most of them have survived to this day.

Scandinavian culture also influenced its neighbors. For example, the Anglo-Saxons. The poem "Beowulf" was created between the 8th and 10th centuries. 3182 lines tell the story of a glorious Viking who first becomes king and then defeats the monster Grendel, his mother, and the dragon.

The second half dates back to the era of developed feudalism. This is the French “Song of Roland”, the German “Song of the Nibelungs”, etc. The surprising thing is that each work gives an idea of a unique picture of the world of a particular people.

What genres are included in the epic of this period? For the most part these are poems, but there are poetic works within which there are parts written in prose. For example, this is typical for Irish legends (“The Saga of the Battle of Mag Turied”, “The Book of the Conquests of Ireland”, “Annals of the Four Masters”, etc.).

The key difference between the two groups of medieval poems is the scale of the events depicted. If monuments before the 12th century. talked about an entire era, then in the years of developed feudalism a specific event (for example, a battle) becomes the object of the story.

There are several theories of the origin of “heroic” creativity in medieval Europe. According to one of them, songs in the cantilena genre, common in the 7th century, became such a basis. A proponent of this theory was Gaston Paris, a famous French explorer of the Middle Ages. Cantilenas were small stories about a particular historical event, set to a simple musical structure (most often vocal).

Over the years, these “crumbs” were combined into something larger and generalized. For example, in the tales of King Arthur, common among the Celtic population of Great Britain. Thus, the genres of folk epic merged into one whole over time. In the case of Arthur, novels of the “Breton cycle” arose. The plots penetrated into all kinds of chronicles created at the monasteries. This is how semi-mythical stories turned into documented truth. The Knights of the Round Table still cause a lot of controversy regarding reality and authenticity.

The key reason for the flourishing of the genre in Christian Europe of that era is considered to be the fall of the Roman Empire, the decomposition of the slave system and the emergence of feudalism, which was based on military service to one’s overlord.

Major epic genres

Epic is a generic designation for large epic works, as well as similar works.

There are two definitions of epic:

This is an extensive narrative in prose or verse about some outstanding national historical event
A long, complex history of something, including a number of major events.

The formation of the epic genre was preceded by the emergence of epic songs that were semi-narrative, semi-lyrical in nature, which were caused by the military exploits of the tribe, clan and dedicated to the heroes around whom they were grouped. These songs were then combined into large poetic units - epics. They were imprinted with the integrity of construction and personal design, but were only nominally associated with any author. Thus, for example, the poems “Odyssey” and “Iliad” by Homer arose.

Finished works on a similar topic

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Another major epic genre is the novel - a prose genre that involves a narrative about the development of the personality and life of the main character or heroes of the work in a turning point, non-standard period of life.

The name of the genre arose in the middle of the 12th century along with the genre of chivalric romance, as opposed to historiography in Latin. Despite popular opinion, this name initially did not refer to any work in the vernacular (lyrics of troubadours, heroic songs were never called novels), but to a work that could be at least remotely opposed to the Latin model - fable, historiography, vision.

From a historical and literary point of view, it is impossible to talk about the emergence of the novel as a genre due to the fact that “novel” is essentially an inclusive term, overloaded with ideological and philosophical connotations and indicating a complex of phenomena that are relatively autonomous and not always genetically related to each other .

In this sense, the emergence of the novel takes several eras, starting from the era of Antiquity and ending with the 18th century. At the same time, the processes of convergence were of great importance - the absorption and assimilation of narrative types and classes from neighboring literary series.

One of the oldest types of epic works is the epic poem. Since antiquity, this genre has focused all its attention on depicting heroic events taken from the distant past. Usually these events were epochal and had a great influence on the course of national and general history. Examples of epic poems are “The Odyssey” and “Iliad” by Homer, “The Song of the Nibelungs”, “The Song of Roland”, “Jerusalem Liberated” by Tasso, “The Furious Roland” by Ariosto, etc. the epic poem aroused particular interest from theorists and writers of classicism. The genre was recognized as the crown of poetry for its civic spirit, sublimity, and heroism. Writers of classicism, in the process of theoretical development of the genre, mainly relied on the traditions of antiquity. The choice of the hero of the work was determined not only by moral qualities; first of all, the womb had to be a historical personality, and the events in which the hero was involved should have national and universal significance. the hero of the work must become a model, an example of human behavior.

Russian epic

The Russian epic received its own term in our language - “epics”. Most of them were passed down orally from generation to generation, and those lists that are currently presented in museums and transferred to textbooks and anthologies date back to the 17th – 18th centuries.

Nevertheless, the genres of folk epic in Rus' were in their heyday in the 9th – 13th centuries, i.e. before the Mongol invasion. And it is precisely this era that is reflected in most literary monuments of this kind.

The peculiarities of the epic genre are that they represent a synthesis of Christian and pagan traditions. Often, such interweaving prevents historians from determining for sure the nature of this or that character or phenomenon.

The key characters of such works are heroes - heroes of the folk epic. This is especially clearly reflected in the epics of the Kyiv cycle. Another collective image is Prince Vladimir. Most often it is suggested that the baptist of Rus' is hidden under this name. This, in turn, gives rise to a dispute about where the Russian epic originated. Most researchers agree that epics were created in the south of Kievan Rus, while in Muscovite Rus they were generalized several centuries later.

Of course, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” occupies a special place in the Russian literary pantheon. This monument of ancient Slavic culture introduces the reader not only to the main plot - the unsuccessful campaign of the princes in the lands of the Polovtsians, but also personifies the picture of the world that surrounded the inhabitants of Rus' in those years. First of all, it is mythology and songs. The work summarizes the features of the epic genre. The “Word” is also extremely important from a linguistic point of view.

Readers' opinion

Taking this opportunity, we conducted a small survey among students of the literary institute on the topic “What is Epic?” We received different, sometimes very contradictory, statements.

I suggest you familiarize yourself with some of them.

…………

This is a story about what happened, and each word of the epic can be interpreted in its own way.

………….

An epic is an epic work, which, unlike a myth, has a narrative rather than a legendary basis. Usually in an epic there are gods or heroes who lead the people or heroes. Also, as a rule, there are two characters in an epic: one of them is the main character, the other is his friend. In ancient Greek these were the gods. Epic and myth also differ in their plots.

…………

This is not only a poem, but also a story. For example, “Eugene Onegin” is not only a novel in verse, but also an encyclopedia of Russian life.

………..

This is a story of heroic deeds, the plot of which develops around one person. An epic is a story that revolves around a group of characters. Therefore, in an epic, one hero can lead the story. This is the difference between an epic and a novella.

………..

An epic is not just history, it is something that will remain for centuries. This is like a brief summary of all those great feats and battles that were accomplished by people over many centuries of human existence.

………..

It is an epic work of ancient literature written in classical language. Based on the Epic, one can reconstruct the worldview and outlook of her era. The epic often uses mythological characters and motifs. The heroes of the epic can be both real historical figures and fictional ones. There are different types of epic: heroic, philosophical, historical, everyday.

If you disagree with any of these opinions, write about it in the comments and justify your answer.

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Lost works

The legacy of the past, which has not survived to this day, deserves a separate discussion. The reason is often the banal lack of a documented copy of the book. Since legends were often transmitted orally, over time many inaccuracies appeared in them, and especially unsuccessful ones were completely forgotten. Many poems were lost due to frequent fires, wars and other disasters.

Mentions of lost relics of the past can also be found in ancient sources. Thus, the Roman orator Cicero back in the 1st century BC. in his works he complained that information about the legendary heroes of the city on seven hills - Romulus, Regulus, Coriolanus - had been irretrievably lost.

Poems in dead languages are especially often lost, since there are no speakers who could pass on their culture and preserve the memory of the people’s past. Here is just a small list of these ethnic groups: Turduls, Gauls, Huns, Goths, Lombards.

In ancient Greek sources there are references to books, the originals of which were never found or were preserved in fragments. This is the Titanomachy, which tells the story of the battle between gods and titans before the existence of mankind. Plutarch, who lived at the beginning of our era, mentioned it in his works.

Many sources of the Minoan civilization, which lived on Crete and disappeared after a mysterious cataclysm, have been lost. In particular, this is the story of the reign of King Minos.