When did ancient Russian literature emerge?
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The prerequisite for the emergence of Old Russian literature was various forms of oral folklore and pagan legends. Slavic writing arose only in the 9th century AD. Until this time, knowledge and epics were passed on from mouth to mouth. But the baptism of Rus' and the creation of the alphabet by Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius in 863 opened the way for books from Byzantium, Greece, and Bulgaria. Christian teaching was transmitted through the first books. Since there were few written sources in ancient times, the need arose to rewrite books.
The alphabet contributed to the cultural development of the Eastern Slavs. Since the Old Russian language is similar to the Old Bulgarian, the Slavic alphabet, which was used in Bulgaria and Serbia, could be used in Rus'. The Eastern Slavs gradually adopted a new writing system. In ancient Bulgaria, by the 10th century, culture had reached its peak of development. Works by writers John the Exarch of Bulgaria, Clement, and Tsar Simeon began to appear. Their works also influenced ancient Russian culture.
The Christianization of the ancient Russian state made writing a necessity, because without it state life, social and international relations would be impossible. The Christian religion is not able to exist without teachings, solemn words, lives, and the life of the prince and his court, relations with neighbors and enemies were reflected in the chronicles. Translators and copyists appeared. They were all church people: priests, deacons, monks. Rewriting took a lot of time, and there were still few books.
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Old Russian books were written mainly on parchment, which was obtained after special processing of pork, calf, and lamb skin. In the ancient Russian state, handwritten books were called “harateynye”, “harati” or “veal books”. The durable but expensive material also made books expensive, which is why it was so important to find a replacement for pet leather. Foreign paper, called “overseas”, appeared only in the 14th century. But until the 17th century, parchment was used to write valuable state documents.
Ink was made by combining old iron (nails) and tannin (growths on oak leaves called “ink nuts”). To make the ink thick and shiny, cherry and molasses glue was poured into it. Ferrous ink, which has a brown tint, was distinguished by its increased durability. To add originality and decorativeness, colored ink, gold or silver sheets were used. For writing, they used goose feathers, the tip of which was cut off, and a cut was made in the middle of the point.
Literature of the 11th - early 13th centuries.
The themes and tasks of the literature of this period (the fight against the Cumans and Pechenegs - external enemies, questions of the connection between Russian history and world history, the struggle for the Kiev throne of princes, the history of the emergence of the state) determined the nature of the style of this time, which D. S. Likhachev called monumental historicism. The emergence of chronicle writing in our country is associated with the beginning of domestic literature.
We also note a work that can be found in the textbook “Old Russian Literature” (grade 6). This is the “Tale of Bygone Years,” which came to us as part of later chronicles. It was compiled by the publicist and historian monk Nestor around 1113. The narrative is based on early chronicles that have not survived. The textbook “Old Russian Literature” (6th grade) also includes another interesting work of that time - “The Tale of Kozhemyak.”
What century does ancient Russian literature belong to?
The first ancient Russian written sources date back to the 9th century. The ancient Russian state of Kievan Rus occupied an honorable place among other European states. Written sources contributed to the strengthening of the state and its development. The Old Russian period ends in the 17th century.
Periodization of Old Russian literature.
- Written sources of Kievan Rus: the period covers the 11th century and the beginning of the 13th century. At this time, the main written source was the chronicle.
- Literature of the second third of the 13th century and the end of the 14th century. The Old Russian state is going through a period of fragmentation. Dependence on the Golden Horde set back the development of culture many centuries ago.
- The end of the 14th century, which is characterized by the unification of the principalities of the northeast into one Moscow principality, the emergence of appanage principalities, and the beginning of the 15th century.
- XV - XVI centuries: this is the period of centralization of the Russian state and the emergence of journalistic literature.
- The 16th – end of the 17th century is the New Age, which marks the emergence of poetry. Now works are released with an indication of the author.
The oldest known work of Russian literature is the Ostromir Gospel. It received its name from the name of the Novgorod mayor Ostromir, who ordered the scribe Deacon Gregory to translate it. During 1056 - 1057 the translation has been completed. This was the mayor's contribution to the St. Sophia Cathedral, erected in Novgorod.
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The second gospel is the Arkhangelsk Gospel, which was written in 1092. From the literature of this period, a lot of hidden and philosophical meaning is hidden in the Izbornik of Grand Duke Svyatoslav of 1073. The Izbornik reveals the meaning and idea of mercy, the principles of morality. The basis of the philosophical thought of Kievan Rus was the gospels and apostolic epistles. They described the earthly life of Jesus and also described his miraculous resurrection.
Books have always been the source of philosophical thought. Translations from Syriac, Greek, and Georgian penetrated into Rus'. There were also translations from European countries: England, France, Norway, Denmark, Sweden. Their works were revised and rewritten by ancient Russian scribes. Old Russian philosophical culture is a reflection of mythology and has Christian roots. Among the monuments of ancient Russian writing, the “Messages of Vladimir Monomakh” and “Prayers of Daniil the Zatochnik” stand out.
The first ancient Russian literature is characterized by high expressiveness and richness of language. To enrich the Old Church Slavonic language, they used the language of folklore and the performances of orators. Two literary styles arose, one of which was “High,” which was solemn, and the other, “Low,” which was used in everyday life.
Genres of literature
- lives of saints, include biographies of bishops, patriarchs, founders of monasteries, saints (created in compliance with special rules and required a special style of presentation) - patericon (life of the first saints Boris and Gleb, Abbess Feodosia),
- lives of saints, which are presented from a different point of view - apocrypha,
- historical works or chronicles (chronographs) - brief records of the history of ancient Rus', Russian chronograph of the second half of the 15th century,
- works about fictional travels and adventures - walking.
Genres of Old Russian literature table
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The central place among the genres of ancient Russian literature is occupied by chronicle writing, which developed over the centuries. These are weather records of the history and events of Ancient Rus'. The chronicle is a preserved written chronicle (from the word - summer, records begin “in the summer”) monument from one or several lists. The names of the chronicles are random. This may be the name of the scribe or the name of the area where the chronicle was written. For example, Lavrentyevskaya - on behalf of the scribe Lavrenty, Ipatyevskaya - after the name of the monastery where the chronicle was found. Often chronicles are collections that combine several chronicles at once. The source for such vaults were protographs.
The chronicle that served as the basis for the vast majority of ancient Russian written sources is the “Tale of Bygone Years” of 1068. A common feature of the chronicles of the 12th – 15th centuries is that the chroniclers no longer consider political events in their chronicles, but focus on the needs and interests of “their principality” (Chronicle of Veliky Novgorod, Pskov chronicle, chronicle of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, Moscow chronicle), and not the events of the Russian land as a whole, as it was before
"The Tale of Bygone Years"
The most ancient monument of Russian chronicle that has reached us. It was compiled by Nestor in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery around 1113 based on earlier chronicles. This ancient monument tells about the emergence of the ancient Russian state, about the position of the Russians in the family of Slavic, European and other peoples, about the battles with foreign invaders who encroached on the land of “father and grandfather”, about the internecine wars of the princes that weakened the country, about the first successes in the development of Christian culture. Chroniclers portrayed Rus' as a powerful and independent state, which more than once entered into single combat and defeated the Byzantine Empire, Volga Bulgaria, and the Khazar Khaganate. They were proud of the wisdom of Russian rulers (Olga, Vladimir, Yaroslav), glorified the first national saints (the martyred princes Boris and Gleb, the founders of the Kiev Caves Monastery Anthony and Theodosius), and formed a sense of historical memory and patriotism among their contemporaries and descendants.
Essay on what ancient Russian literature teaches.
Medieval man deeply believed in the power of words. That is why the genre of the teaching word developed so intensively in ancient Russian literature. N.V. Gogol noted that in these words the beginnings of the originality of our ancient literature “broke through.” Old Russian scribes were convinced that the written word brings goodness, goodness that a person needs in life. “The light shines in the darkness, and the darkness will not embrace it.” They encouraged the reader to read the book slowly, carefully, and to refer to the same chapter three times. Just as a ruler restrains a horse with a bridle, so to a righteous man the book is a “bridle of self-control.” Books promote abstinence from passions. They allow a person to find inner beauty and harmony and are a spiritual weapon in the fight against sins. A book is like sails that guide a person’s ship of life on its voyage across the stormy waves of the sea. A book is a weapon that decorates a person, which protects him from everyday storms and anxieties (from “The Word on Reading Books”). Drawing from a miniature from a 17th-century handwritten book “The Gospel” Old Russian literature developed enduring values; it had an educational character, formed the writer’s sense of responsibility, and deep patriotism. A special feature of literature was its national-patriotic pathos. Through rich translated literature, ancient Russian literature assimilated the best achievements of Byzantine and South Slavic cultures, became European literature and took its place in world artistic culture. There were broad connections between our ancient literature and the literatures of the Eastern and Southern Slavs. The general circle of monuments, for example, can be observed in the “Chetih-Minea”. Translated monuments “Alexandria” and “Physiologist” were popular throughout medieval Europe. An exchange of manuscripts took place, manuscripts created in Serbia and Bulgaria were translated in Russia, and those created in Rus' were exported to other countries. Even in the 18th century, Russian handwritten and printed publications found their way to Bulgaria, Serbia, and Romania. Russian scribes worked in monasteries in Bulgaria and Serbia, and Serbian and Bulgarian writers worked in Rus' in the 15th–16th centuries. There is a typological similarity between the monuments of all ancient Slavs. All these factors formed the basis of the connections between the literatures and their cultural unity. Russian literature has preserved traditions for the literature of modern times, introduced ideological richness and artistic merit, a diverse system of genres (stories, traditions, circulations, teachings, stories, epistles, lives, legends). The history of culture is the history of the accumulation of cultural values and their assimilation (traditions). The relationship of modern culture to Old Russian culture consists in the continuation of themes, plots, motifs of Old Russian literature, in the development of its artistic merits (development of traditions, innovation in artistic penetration into Old Russian life, history, culture). In ancient Russian literature, the art of narration, the art of laconic characteristics, and the ability to create brief philosophical generalizations developed.
